Pell's equation

Theorem 1 Let \( \alpha \) be an irrational number, and \( Q > 1 \) an integer. Then there exist \( p , q \) integers, with \( 1 \leq q < Q \), such that \( | p - q \alpha | < \frac { 1 } { Q } \).

Proof. For \( 1\leq k \leq Q-1 \): Set \( \alpha_{k}=\left\lfloor k\alpha \right\rfloor \) such that \( 0 < k\alpha - \alpha_{k} < 1. \)

Partition the interval \( [0,1] \) into \( [0,1/Q] \cup [1/Q, 2/Q] \cup \cdots \cup [(Q-1)/Q, 1] \). So there are in total \( Q \) subintervals. Let \( S=\{0, \alpha - \alpha_{1}, 2\alpha - \alpha_{2}, \ldots (Q-1)\alpha - \alpha_{Q-1} ,1\} \), \( |S|=Q+1 \). There there must be a subinterval from earlier which contains at least 2 elements of \( S \) which are not 0 and 1.

Set \( \alpha_0=0, \alpha_Q=1 \). Since \( s_x \) and \( s_y \) are in the same subinterval, \( |s_x-s_y|=|m\alpha-(\alpha_y-\alpha_x)| < 1/Q \) where \( 1 \leq m < Q \).

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Corollary 2 For any irrational \( \alpha \) there are infinitely many \( \frac { p } { q } \) such that

\[ \left| \alpha - \frac { p } { q } \right| < \frac { 1 } { q ^ { 2 } } \]

Proof.

\[ | p - q \alpha | < \frac { 1 } { Q } \iff |q| | \frac{p}{q} - \alpha | < \frac { 1 } { Q } \implies | \frac{p}{q} - \alpha | < \frac { 1 } { Q\cdot q } < \frac { 1 } { q ^ { 2 } } \]

For any given \( Q\in Z \) there exists integers \( p, q \) that satisfies the above ineqaulity. Find \( Q' \in \mathbb Z : \frac 1 Q' < | p- q\alpha | \). Then there exists integers \( p' , q' \) such that \( | p'- q'\alpha | < \frac 1 Q' < | p- q\alpha | \). Clearly \( p \neq p' \, \land \, q \neq q' \). We can repeat this process to find infinitely many such \( p, q \).

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Theorem 3 For any squarefree d, there is a nontrivial integer solution to \( x^2 - d y^2=1 \)

Proof. Since we are looking for nontrivial solution \( y\neq 0 \). \( x^2 - d y^2=1 \iff \frac x y = \sqrt d \). Based on the earlier corollary, there are infinitely many \( \frac { x } { y } \) such that

\[ \left| \sqrt d - \frac { x } { y } \right| < \frac { 1 } { y ^ { 2 } } \iff \left| x - y\sqrt d \right| < \frac { 1 } {y} < y \sqrt d \]

Note

\[ \left| x + y\sqrt d \right| \leq \left| x - y\sqrt d \right| + |2y \sqrt d| < \frac { 1 } {y}+2y \sqrt d < 3 y \sqrt d \]

Therefore,

Since \( N(x + y\sqrt d) \in \mathbb Z \) and is bounded in a finite interval, there exists an integer \( M : |M|<3\sqrt d \, \land \, \)there exists infinitely many pairs of \( (x,y) \) such that \( N(x + y\sqrt d) = M \).

Since there are finitely many congruence classes mod \( M \), there are infinitely many \( x \) in at least one congruence classes \( [x_0]_M \). And there are infinitely many \( y \) that is paired up with such \( x \) in at least one congruence classes \( [y_0]_M \).

For any \( (x_i, y_i) \) and \( (x_j, y_j) \) that satisfy the above conditions,

\[ \frac { x _ { i } - y _ { i } \sqrt { d } } { x _ { j } - y _ { j } \sqrt { d } } =\frac { (x _ { i } - y _ { i } \sqrt { d }) (x _ { j } + y _ { j } \sqrt { d }) } { (x _ { j } - y _ { j } \sqrt { d }) (x _ { j } + y _ { j } \sqrt { d })} = \frac { \left( x _ { i } x _ { j } - d y _ { i } y _ { j } \right) + \left( x _ { i } y _ { j } - x _ { j } y _ { i } \right) \sqrt { d } } { M } \]

Note,

\begin{align*} x _ { i } y _ { j } - x _ { j } y _ { i } \equiv x_0y_0-x_0y_0 \equiv 0 &\mod M \\ x _ { i } x _ { j } - d y _ { i } y _ { j } \equiv x_0^2-dy_0^2 \equiv M &\mod M \end{align*}

Therefore, \( \exists a,b \in \mathbb Z \) s.t.

\[ \frac { x _ { i } - y _ { i } \sqrt { d } } { x _ { j } - y _ { j } \sqrt { d } } = a+b\sqrt { d } \]

It is easy to tell that \( N(a+b\sqrt { d })=M/M =1 \). The solution is nontrivial when \( (x_i, y_i) \neq (x_j, y_j) \).

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